Altruism

Altruism is a practice or disposition in which a person works for the benefit of others, even when doing so costs time, money, or involves risk. It stands in opposition to egoism, which prioritizes only the individual's own interests. The term is used in philosophy, psychology, and biology.

The definition of altruism varies across disciplines. Philosophers ask whether any act can be entirely without self-interest; psychologists examine what motivates a person to help. In biology, altruism is defined as behavior that reduces an individual's reproductive capacity while enhancing that of another.

Philosophy and ethical thought

The term altruisme was coined by French philosopher Auguste Comte in the nineteenth century, derived from the Latin alter (other). He made it the cornerstone of secular ethics: an individual must place society before self. Utilitarian philosophers such as Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill valued actions according to the overall benefit they produce, which approaches the idea of altruism. Many religions likewise encourage charity, giving, and service to the vulnerable.

Biological explanations

Evolutionary biologists have proposed two main explanations. The first is kin selection: an individual helps those with whom they share genes, and thus those genes persist. W. D. Hamilton quantified the relationship between relatedness, cost, and benefit. The second is reciprocal altruism, described by Robert Trivers: an individual helps another today in expectation of help in the future. Well-known examples include birds that signal danger to their group and social animals such as bees and ants.

Psychology and society

Social psychology links altruism to empathy and helping behavior. Studies have examined situations in which people in a group aid someone in need; results show that the number of people present, closeness to the person in distress, and social pressure influence the decision to help. There is also debate over whether helping sometimes stems from a desire to reduce one's own distress, meaning the motive is ultimately self-interested.

Modern usage

Today the term is used when discussing charitable giving, blood and organ donation, and volunteer work. A movement called effective altruism argues that giving should be measured by outcomes—that money should go to programs with the greatest impact. This movement has been associated with discussions about how charities operate.