11th century BCE

The 11th century BCE refers to the period spanning from 1100 to 1001 BCE. It was a transitional era between the end of the Late Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age in the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East. Many powerful kingdoms that had dominated previous centuries were destroyed or weakened, while smaller local societies filled the spaces they left behind.

The most visible transformation of this century was the collapse of economic systems that relied on long-distance trade in bronze and tin. As a result, iron from local sources was gradually substituted for bronze in agricultural tools and weapons. This change was not sudden; it occurred at different times in different places.

Near East

The Hittite Empire in Anatolia had already collapsed, leaving behind small Neo-Hittite states scattered across southern Anatolia and northern Syria. Assyria continued to exercise moderate power but faced pressure from Aramean tribal groups that invaded the Euphrates valley. Babylon and southern Iraq likewise experienced a period of declining authority.

The coast of Canaan and Lebanon, where Phoenician city-states such as Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos were located, began to profit from the maritime trade vacuum left by the great empires. From this region was also developed an alphabet that later influenced Greek writing.

Egypt

Egypt was in the final years of the New Kingdom. The power of the Theban king declined, with the High Priest of Amun exercising actual authority in the south, while the north was governed from Tanis. This division marked the beginning of what is known as the Third Intermediate Period.

Greece and Europe

Greece saw the collapse of Mycenaean civilization: palaces, Linear B archives, and long-distance trade all disappeared. This period is commonly called the Greek Dark Ages, a term reflecting the scarcity of written records, though it does not mean that society came to a halt. In central and western Europe, Bronze Age cultures continued, with iron gradually being adopted.

Asia and other regions

In China, the early Zhou dynasty took power from the Shang at the end of the 11th century, establishing a system of kingship based on the distribution of land to relatives and allies. In northern India, the later Vedic period continued, as pastoral societies expanded through the Ganges valley.