Akkadian

Akkadian is an ancient language belonging to the Semitic family (which also includes Arabic, Hebrew, and Aramaic). It was spoken in Mesopotamia—the region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, now largely in Iraq. It is the oldest attested Semitic language.

Akkadian was written in cuneiform, a script consisting of wedge-shaped marks pressed into soft clay with a stylus. The script itself was originally developed by the Sumerians; the Akkadians adopted and adapted it for their language. As a result, Akkadian texts contain signs that represent both sounds and entire words, the latter inherited from Sumerian.

Dialects and periods

Akkadian is usually divided into two major dialects: Babylonian (southern) and Assyrian (northern). Both have historical periods—Old, Middle, and Late. The earliest attested period of writing is called Old Akkadian, associated with the Akkad dynasty.

International use

For a long time, Akkadian served as the diplomatic language of the ancient Near East. Rulers and administrations that did not speak Akkadian natively used it when exchanging correspondence. The Amarna Letters found in Egypt are a famous example of this practice.

Language structure

Like other Semitic languages, Akkadian is based on consonantal roots (usually three) that undergo internal modification to express different meanings. Unlike other Semitic languages, Akkadian has a word order in which the verb comes last—a feature attributed to Sumerian influence.

Decline and rediscovery

Thousands of years later, Aramaic replaced Akkadian as a spoken language, gradually spreading throughout Mesopotamia. Akkadian writing continued in use long after the language ceased to be spoken, particularly in religious and astronomical texts. In the nineteenth century, European scholars deciphered cuneiform, making it possible to read many clay tablets.