Fifth Century

The fifth century spans the years 401 to 500 in the Gregorian/Julian calendar. It was a period of major transformation in the political order of the Middle East, Europe, and Asia, particularly the collapse of state power in the Western Roman Empire and the emergence of new kingdoms based on tribal organization.

Meanwhile, other centres of culture and administration strengthened: the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine), with its capital in Constantinople; the Sasanian Empire in Persia; the Gupta Empire in India; and the Aksumite Kingdom in the Horn of Africa.

Europe and the fall of Western Rome

During this century, many Germanic peoples—such as the Visigoths, Vandals, and Franks—carved out territories within the former Roman borders. In 410, the Visigoths entered the city of Rome. The Hunnic confederation, led by Attila in the middle of the century, threatened both halves of the empire. The year 476 is conventionally marked as the date when the last Western Roman emperor was deposed, though historians debate whether this change was abrupt or gradual.

Religion and theological controversy

The Christian Church developed a formal system of administration. Major councils were held on doctrinal matters, including those at Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon (451), which arose from disputes between churches that accepted the Chalcedonian decrees and those that rejected them. This division affected eastern churches, Egypt, and the Horn of Africa for centuries.

Asia and Africa

In India, the Guptas continued advances in mathematics, astronomy, and literature, though late in the century they faced external pressure. China was divided between northern and southern kingdoms. In the Horn of Africa, Aksumite controlled trade on the Red Sea and Indian Ocean and exported ivory, gold, and other valuables.