Human Rights

Human rights, also called human rights, are rights attributed to every person by virtue of their humanity, regardless of nationality, gender, religion, language, political opinion or economic status. The underlying principle is that states have obligations to protect these rights and implement them through law and institutions.

The most well-known text on this matter is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1948. The Declaration is not a legally binding treaty on states, but it became the foundation for later treaties and national constitutions.

Categories of rights

Broadly, rights are divided into two major categories. First, civil and political rights: the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of association, fair trial, and protection of dignity. Second, economic, social and cultural rights: education, health, employment and an adequate standard of living. Some are also listed as universal rights such as development and a clean environment.

International legal framework

The United Nations has issued several treaties, including two 1966 covenants (one on civil and political rights, one on economic, social and cultural rights), the convention against discrimination against women, and the convention on the rights of the child. Each state is free to ratify them, and there are review committees that examine reports from states. Regional systems also exist, such as those in Europe, Africa and the Americas.

Implementation and challenges

The gap between text and practice is the main issue. International bodies generally lack enforcement power and rely on political pressure, public reporting and national courts. Non-governmental organizations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch gather information and cases, which form part of accountability mechanisms.

Debates

Some states and scholars question whether the value of human rights originates from Western culture and whether local customs should be considered. On the other hand, supporters argue that some rights, such as protection from torture and slavery, are not culturally bound. Another debate concerns when national security can justify restrictions on freedoms.