Isaac Newton
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Isaac Newton (1642/1643–1727) was an English mathematician, physicist, and natural philosopher. He formulated three laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation—the idea that all matter with mass attracts all other matter. His work provided the foundation for classical physics for centuries.
Newton was also among those who developed calculus, the mathematics of change, which measures rates of change and areas under curves. A historical dispute exists between him and the German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz over who first developed this method.
Life and education
Newton was born in Lincolnshire, England. He studied at Cambridge University, where he later became professor of mathematics. During a period when the university was closed, he is said to have developed a large part of his early ideas on gravitation, light, and mathematics while working at home.
Principia and the laws of motion
His famous work is Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687). The book presented three laws: (1) an object in motion or at rest remains so until a force acts on it; (2) the change in motion is proportional to the force applied and the mass of the object; (3) every force has an equal and opposite reaction. In the same work, he showed how a single law of gravitation could explain the motion of the moon, planets, and objects falling to Earth.
Light and instruments
Newton performed experiments with light using a prism, demonstrating that white light consists of different colors. He also built a reflecting telescope, called the Newtonian telescope, which uses mirrors to focus light instead of requiring only lenses.
Other work and influence
Newton spent considerable time on early chemistry, alchemy, and theological and historical study. He also held government positions, including directing the English Royal Mint, and was elected president of the Royal Society. In the twentieth century, Albert Einstein's theories of relativity and quantum physics showed that Newton's laws are accurate only under specific conditions—low speeds and weak gravitational fields—but they remain widely used in engineering and atmospheric science.