Racism

Racism (also called racial discrimination) is an ideology and practice of categorizing people based on skin color, ethnic origin, or ancestry. It rests on the assumption that one group of humans possesses greater ability or worth than another, supposedly demonstrated by inherited characteristics. Modern biology does not support the division of humans into distinct biological "races"; genetic variation within human populations is greater than variation between them.

Racism can manifest at different levels: individual conduct (speech, assault, exclusion), institutional practices (employment, housing, education, policing, courts), and explicit law in some historical and contemporary states. Social science distinguishes between overt racism and institutional racism, which occurs when systems produce unequal outcomes for different groups, regardless of individual intent.

Historical origins

Categorization of people by ancestry is ancient, but its modern form based on biological "race" was reinforced during European expansion, the Atlantic slave trade, and colonialism. Scholars in the 18th and 19th centuries attempted to divide humans into ranked biological categories; these ideas were later used for political justification. Eugenic theories of the early 20th century intensified these beliefs, reaching their most systematic application under Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945.

Legally mandated systems

Several states enshrined racism in law. South Africa institutionalized apartheid from 1948 until the early 1990s, segregating residence, education, marriage, and voting rights. The United States had Jim Crow laws in the South that segregated public spaces; these were dismantled during the 1950s and 1960s following the civil rights movement. Colonial territories under European rule also maintained laws that restricted the rights of indigenous populations.

International law

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) prohibited discrimination based on race or color. The United Nations adopted the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD) in 1965, establishing monitoring bodies for implementation. Many countries have domestic laws prohibiting hate speech and discrimination in employment and services.

Contemporary forms

Today racism is rarely codified in law but persists in measurable disparities: employment rates, access to healthcare, lending, and housing. Online hate speech and violence targeting migrants and marginalized groups also occur. Some scholars use the terms "xenophobia" (fear or hatred of foreigners) and "ethnocentrism" to distinguish related phenomena.