Safavid Empire

The Safavid Empire was a state that ruled Iran and parts of surrounding territories from 1501 until the eighteenth century. It was founded by Ismail I, who came from a dynasty leading a Sufi order (mystical Islamic brotherhood) known as the Safavids. The first capital was Tabriz, later moved to Qazvin, and finally to Isfahan.

The Safavid Empire is historically significant chiefly for establishing Twelver Shiism (Ithnā ʿAsharī Islam) as the official state religion, despite most of the population being Sunni at the time. This transformation lasted for centuries in Iranian lands and created enduring political divisions between Iran and neighboring Sunni kingdoms, particularly the Ottomans to the west and Uzbek states to the northeast.

Foundation and the Qizilbash

Ismail I relied on military forces drawn from Turkmen tribes known as the Qizilbash (meaning 'red heads,' referring to the headgear they wore). These tribes provided the military power that established the new state, but they also became factions competing for influence in governance. The relationship between the shah and tribal leaders was a persistent issue that shaped domestic politics throughout much of the empire's history.

Conflict with the Ottomans

In 1514, the Battle of Chaldiran occurred between the forces of Ismail I and Ottoman Sultan Selim I. The Ottomans made extensive use of firearms and artillery and prevailed in the battle. Following this defeat, the western border became a zone of recurring warfare for centuries, with cities such as Baghdad and Tabriz changing hands repeatedly.

The Era of Abbas I

Abbas I (whose reign began in 1588) reorganized the state: he built a regular standing army loyal directly to the state (including slave soldiers trained for military service) and reduced dependence on the Qizilbash tribes. He made Isfahan the capital, where he constructed the grand Naqsh-e Jahan Square, mosques, and markets. Silk trade and diplomatic relations with European companies and states expanded during his reign.

Decline

In the early eighteenth century, central authority weakened. In 1722, Afghan forces under the Hotaki dynasty captured Isfahan, delivering a severe blow to the state. A weakened Safavid shah was nominally recognized for a brief period, but in 1736 Nader Shah formally assumed power, ending Safavid rule.