Social science

Social science is a broad term used for several disciplines that study human nature, relationships between people, and the institutions they create. These include sociology, economics, political science, anthropology (the study of peoples and cultures), human geography, and parts of psychology. History is often classified as social science, though some view it as intermediate between the humanities and the sciences.

What distinguishes scientists from philosophers and general thinkers is method: a clear question, collected data, a testable analytical procedure, and conclusions that others can verify. Data comes from surveys, interviews, direct observation, government records, and designed experiments.

History

The idea of studying society through scientific methods took hold in the 18th and 19th centuries in Europe, as industrialization and urbanization accelerated. Thinkers like Auguste Comte argued that society could be studied the way natural science is studied. By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, sociology, economics, and anthropology became independent departments in universities.

Research methods

There are two major approaches. Quantitative methods use counting and measurement—for example, a survey of hundreds of people analyzed using mathematical techniques. Qualitative methods focus on meaning and experience, using long interviews, life histories, and ethnography (in which the researcher spends extended time with a group and documents it). Many studies combine both.

Challenges

Studying people poses particular difficulties. Controlled experiments are not always possible, because of ethics and custom. People change their behavior when they know they are being observed. It is also hard to separate cause from correlation: two things that occur together do not necessarily mean one caused the other. In recent years, concern has grown that many published results cannot be reproduced when the experiment is repeated.

Applications

Findings from social science are used in public policy planning, education, public health, urban management, and marketing. International organizations and governments rely on social science surveys when assessing poverty, unemployment, and education.