The 12th Century

The 12th century spans the years 1101 to 1200 according to the Gregorian calendar, the chronological system widely used today. It was part of the High Middle Ages in Eurasia, marked by the growth of cities, new construction of schools and universities, and commercial connections between Asia, the Middle East, and Europe.

During this period, the major powers included the Byzantine Empire, Islamic states in the Middle East and North Africa, the Chinese dynasties of Song and Jin, and smaller European kingdoms organized under feudalism (a system of land tenure and military service). Religious, legal, and technological changes occurred simultaneously.

Europe

Europe experienced population growth and agricultural expansion, leading to the development of many cities. Construction of large churches increased, particularly in the Romanesque and early Gothic styles. Cathedral schools connected to churches gradually gave way to centers of learning that preceded universities, such as those at Bologna and Paris. Roman law and church law (canon law) were revised and systematized.

The Middle East and the Crusades

This century saw several military campaigns originating from Europe known as the Crusades, directed at the Levant. Crusader states persisted on the eastern Mediterranean coast until Muslim leaders, notably Saladin, retook Jerusalem in 1187. These encounters also increased commercial and intellectual exchange between the two sides.

Asia

In China, the Song dynasty retreated south after the Jurchen established the Jin dynasty in the north. This period saw advances in printing, maritime trade, and the use of paper money. In South Asia, Hindu kingdoms competed for power, while invasions from the northwest began political changes with major consequences. In Central Asia, nomadic peoples of the steppes were centers of power shifts that would produce significant outcomes in the following century.

Knowledge and culture

The translation of Greek and Arabic texts into Latin—particularly in Toledo and Sicily—brought mathematics, philosophy, and medicine to Europe. At the same time, Muslim and Jewish scholars continued work in philosophy and astronomy. Literature in vernacular languages began to gain recognition alongside formal written works.