The 21st Century Before the Common Era

The 21st century before the Common Era spans from 2100 BCE to 2001 BCE. It forms part of the Bronze Age in the Middle East. This period is marked by the emergence of literate states in Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq), Egypt, and the Indus Valley.

The history of this century is reconstructed from king lists, which survive in stone inscriptions and clay tablets, and from scientific dating methods including radiocarbon-14 analysis. For this reason, the dates of specific years remain contested; scholars employ different chronological systems (high, middle, and low chronologies).

Mesopotamia and the Third Dynasty of Ur

At the beginning of the century, the city-state of Ur in southern Mesopotamia governed a centralized administrative system known as Ur III. This state maintained detailed written records: taxes, goods, and labor were documented on clay tablets inscribed in cuneiform. By the end of the century this system had collapsed, replaced by fragmented rule, including the cities of Isin and Larsa.

The causes of Ur III's collapse are explained through multiple factors: invasions by Amorite-speaking peoples who settled the agricultural lands, attacks from the east (Elam), and water management crises that reduced agricultural output. No single cause commands scholarly consensus.

Egypt

During this century, Egypt entered the period known as the Middle Kingdom, following an interval of fragmentation called the First Intermediate Period. Rulers from Thebes reunified the country and restored centralized administration and building projects. Egyptian hieroglyphic writing and art continued to develop.

Other Regions

The Indus Valley (in present-day Pakistan and India) contained planned cities with grid-laid streets and organized drainage systems; during and after this century, populations began to shift away from the major urban centers. In Europe, Central Asia, and most of Africa, people left no written records, so knowledge depends entirely on archaeological evidence.