The Sixteenth Century

The sixteenth century spans the period from 1501 to 1600 in the European historical calendar. It is marked by the expansion of maritime voyages by Iberian nations (Spain and Portugal), religious upheaval in Europe, and the growth of large empires in Asia and Africa.

During this century there emerged new connections linking continents: the trade in commodities from the Americas (particularly silver and gold), the Atlantic slave trade, and the exchange of goods such as sugar, furs, and coffee. Some historians identify this period as the beginning of a global commercial system.

Religious transformation in Europe

In 1517 Martin Luther, a German theological scholar, challenged the practices of the Catholic Church, particularly the sale of indulgences. This dispute sparked the Reformation, which divided Europe into Catholic and Protestant camps. The Catholic Church responded through the Council of Trent (1545–1563), which reformed doctrine and practice. This division was among the causes of internal conflicts in France and the German territories throughout the remainder of the century.

Maritime voyages and conquest

Portugal dominated the trade routes of the Indian Ocean, establishing commercial settlements in Goa, Malacca, and on the African coast. Spain conquered the Aztec empire (1519–1521) and the Inca empire (mid-1530s), and subsequently established colonial rule in the Americas. The Magellan-Elcano expedition (1519–1522) was the first voyage to circumnavigate the world. Diseases brought from Europe, such as smallpox, reduced the indigenous populations of the Americas drastically.

Empires of Asia and Africa

The Ottoman Empire reached its greatest extent under Suleiman (r. 1520–1566), whose rule extended to the Balkans, the Middle East, and North Africa. Iran was governed by the Safavids, and India saw the founding of the Mughal Empire in 1526. China had the Ming dynasty, and Japan passed through a period of internal conflict that ended with the restoration of centralized power by the end of the century.

The Horn of Africa

In the mid-sixteenth century the Horn of Africa saw prolonged warfare between the Ethiopian Empire and the Adal Imamate led by Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, with each side receiving external support—Portugal backing the Ethiopians and the Ottomans supporting the other side. During the same period there occurred migrations and ethnic shifts that affected the settlement patterns and political organization of the region.