Umayyad Caliphate
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The Umayyad Caliphate was the second caliphate of Islam, succeeding the Rightly Guided Caliphs. It held power until the end of the seventh century and the middle of the eighth century, with its capital at Damascus, located in the Levant. The name derives from Umaya ibn Abd Shams, the grandfather of the Umayyad family from the Quraysh tribe.
During their rule, the caliphate's borders extended from eastern Iran and Central Asia through parts of Sindh, and across the western North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus). It thus became one of the largest states of its time. The caliphate was toppled by the Abbasid revolution, though a member of the Umayyad family established an independent state in Al-Andalus.
Foundation
Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan, governor of the Levant, became ruler following the conflict between himself and Ali ibn Abi Talib (the First Fitna). After Ali's death and his settlement with Hasan ibn Ali, power came into Muawiya's hands. When Yazid was designated as his successor, the succession followed a hereditary-political model, with power remaining within the family, differing from the earlier electoral system.
Administration and Finance
The Umayyads inherited administrative systems from the Byzantine and Sasanian empires and gradually Arabized them. Under Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, Arabic became the language of state administration, and an Islamic currency was introduced, consisting of coins and dirhams without images. Revenue was collected through land tax and poll tax (jizya), and a postal system was established to connect the caliphate's provinces.
Society and Religion
The caliphate's population consisted of Arabs and non-Arabs (mawali) who had converted to Islam. Disparity in tax rights and social status between the mawali and Arab Muslims was a source of grievance. Opposition also arose from the Shia and Kharijites. In architecture, the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus were constructed, known for their mosaic decoration and design.
Decline and Al-Andalus
By the middle of the eighth century, internal conflicts, sectarian rivalries, financial strain, and civil wars weakened central authority. An Abbasid movement that gained strength in Khurasan brought down the caliphate. Abd al-Rahman, a member of the Umayyad family, fled to Al-Andalus, where he established the Umayyad Emirate of Córdoba, which later became a caliphate.